Author: malabdali

Utility libraries in c++

by malabdalic++

initializer_list
template< class T >
class initializer_list;
https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/utility/initializer_list

sizereturns the number of elements in the initializer list
(public member function)
beginreturns a pointer to the first element
(public member function)
endreturns a pointer to one past the last element
(public member function)
#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <initializer_list>
 
template <class T>
struct S {
    std::vector<T> v;
    S(std::initializer_list<T> l) : v(l) {
         std::cout << "constructed with a " << l.size() << "-element list\n";
    }
    void append(std::initializer_list<T> l) {
        v.insert(v.end(), l.begin(), l.end());
    }
    std::pair<const T*, std::size_t> c_arr() const {
        return {&v[0], v.size()};  // copy list-initialization in return statement
                                   // this is NOT a use of std::initializer_list
    }
};
 
template <typename T>
void templated_fn(T) {}
 
int main()
{
    S<int> s = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; // copy list-initialization
    s.append({6, 7, 8});      // list-initialization in function call
 
    std::cout << "The vector size is now " << s.c_arr().second << " ints:\n";
 
    for (auto n : s.v)
        std::cout << n << ' ';
    std::cout << '\n';
 
    std::cout << "Range-for over brace-init-list: \n";
 
    for (int x : {-1, -2, -3}) // the rule for auto makes this ranged-for work
        std::cout << x << ' ';
    std::cout << '\n';
 
    auto al = {10, 11, 12};   // special rule for auto
 
    std::cout << "The list bound to auto has size() = " << al.size() << '\n';
 
//    templated_fn({1, 2, 3}); // compiler error! "{1, 2, 3}" is not an expression,
                             // it has no type, and so T cannot be deduced
    templated_fn<std::initializer_list<int>>({1, 2, 3}); // OK
    templated_fn<std::vector<int>>({1, 2, 3});           // also OK
}
using namespace std;

template<class T>
class A{
public:
    template <std::size_t N>
    A(const T (&t)[N]){//or &&t
        cout<< t[0];
        cout<<N;
    }
};

int main(int argc,char* argv[]){
    int arr[]={1,2};
    A a({1,2});
    return 0;
}

tuple
pair is like tuple but with two elements first and second
https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/utility/tuple

#include <tuple>
#include <iostream>
#include <string>
#include <stdexcept>
 
std::tuple<double, char, std::string> get_student(int id)
{
    if (id == 0) return std::make_tuple(3.8, 'A', "Lisa Simpson");
    if (id == 1) return std::make_tuple(2.9, 'C', "Milhouse Van Houten");
    if (id == 2) return std::make_tuple(1.7, 'D', "Ralph Wiggum");
    throw std::invalid_argument("id");
}
 
int main()
{
    auto student0 = get_student(0);
    std::cout << "ID: 0, "
              << "GPA: " << std::get<0>(student0) << ", "
              << "grade: " << std::get<1>(student0) << ", "
              << "name: " << std::get<2>(student0) << '\n';
 
    double gpa1;
    char grade1;
    std::string name1;
    std::tie(gpa1, grade1, name1) = get_student(1);
    std::cout << "ID: 1, "
              << "GPA: " << gpa1 << ", "
              << "grade: " << grade1 << ", "
              << "name: " << name1 << '\n';
 
    // C++17 structured binding:
    auto [ gpa2, grade2, name2 ] = get_student(2);
    std::cout << "ID: 2, "
              << "GPA: " << gpa2 << ", "
              << "grade: " << grade2 << ", "
              << "name: " << name2 << '\n';
}
std::tuple<int, int> foo_tuple() 
{
  return {1, -1};  // Error until N4387
  return std::tuple<int, int>{1, -1}; // Always works
  return std::make_tuple(1, -1); // Always works
}

apply

int add(int first, int second) { return first + second; }
 
template<typename T>
T add_generic(T first, T second) { return first + second; }
 
auto add_lambda = [](auto first, auto second) { return first + second; };
 
template<typename... Ts>
std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream& os, std::tuple<Ts...> const& theTuple)
{
    std::apply
    (
        [&os](Ts const&... tupleArgs)
        {
            os << '[';
            std::size_t n{0};
            ((os << tupleArgs << (++n != sizeof...(Ts) ? ", " : "")), ...);
            os << ']';
        }, theTuple
    );
    return os;
}
 
int main()
{
    // OK
    std::cout << std::apply(add, std::pair(1, 2)) << '\n';
 
    // Error: can't deduce the function type
    // std::cout << std::apply(add_generic, std::make_pair(2.0f, 3.0f)) << '\n'; 
 
    // OK
    std::cout << std::apply(add_lambda, std::pair(2.0f, 3.0f)) << '\n'; 
 
    // advanced example
    std::tuple myTuple(25, "Hello", 9.31f, 'c');
    std::cout << myTuple << '\n';
 
}

move

std::move is used to indicate that an object t may be “moved from”, i.e. allowing the efficient transfer of resources from t to another object.
In particular, std::move produces an xvalue expression that identifies its argument t. It is exactly equivalent to a static_cast to an rvalue reference type.

#include <iostream>
#include <utility>
#include <vector>
#include <string>
 
int main()
{
    std::string str = "Hello";
    std::vector<std::string> v;
 
    // uses the push_back(const T&) overload, which means 
    // we'll incur the cost of copying str
    v.push_back(str);
    std::cout << "After copy, str is \"" << str << "\"\n";
 
    // uses the rvalue reference push_back(T&&) overload, 
    // which means no strings will be copied; instead, the contents
    // of str will be moved into the vector.  This is less
    // expensive, but also means str might now be empty.
    v.push_back(std::move(str));
    std::cout << "After move, str is \"" << str << "\"\n";
 
    std::cout << "The contents of the vector are \"" << v[0]
                                         << "\", \"" << v[1] << "\"\n";
}
After copy, str is "Hello"
After move, str is ""
The contents of the vector are "Hello", "Hello"

forward

template<class T>
void wrapper(T&& arg) 
{
    // arg is always lvalue
    foo(std::forward<T>(arg)); // Forward as lvalue or as rvalue, depending on T
}
struct Arg
{
    int i = 1;
    int  get() && { return i; } // call to this overload is rvalue
    int& get() &  { return i; } // call to this overload is lvalue
};
#include <iostream>
#include <memory>
#include <utility>
 
struct A {
    A(int&& n) { std::cout << "rvalue overload, n=" << n << "\n"; }
    A(int& n)  { std::cout << "lvalue overload, n=" << n << "\n"; }
};
 
class B {
public:
    template<class T1, class T2, class T3>
    B(T1&& t1, T2&& t2, T3&& t3) :
        a1_{std::forward<T1>(t1)},
        a2_{std::forward<T2>(t2)},
        a3_{std::forward<T3>(t3)}
    {
    }
 
private:
    A a1_, a2_, a3_;
};
 
template<class T, class U>
std::unique_ptr<T> make_unique1(U&& u)
{
    return std::unique_ptr<T>(new T(std::forward<U>(u)));
}
 
template<class T, class... U>
std::unique_ptr<T> make_unique2(U&&... u)
{
    return std::unique_ptr<T>(new T(std::forward<U>(u)...));
}
 
int main()
{   
    auto p1 = make_unique1<A>(2); // rvalue
    int i = 1;
    auto p2 = make_unique1<A>(i); // lvalue
 
    std::cout << "B\n";
    auto t = make_unique2<B>(2, i, 3);
}
rvalue overload, n=2
lvalue overload, n=1
B
rvalue overload, n=2
lvalue overload, n=1
rvalue overload, n=3

exchange

template<class T, class U = T>
constexpr // since C++20
T exchange(T& obj, U&& new_value)
{
    T old_value = std::move(obj);
    obj = std::forward<U>(new_value);
    return old_value;
}

swap

int main()
{
   int a = 5, b = 3;
 
   // before
   std::cout << a << ' ' << b << '\n';
 
   std::swap(a,b);
 
   // after
   std::cout << a << ' ' << b << '\n';
}

bitset
set,reset,flip,size,all,any,none ~^|&
https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/utility/bitset

#include <bitset>
 
int main()
{
    std::bitset<8> b1(42);
    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < b1.size(); ++i) {
        std::cout << "b1[" << i << "]: " << b1[i] << '\n';
    }
    b1[0] = true; // modifies the first bit through bitset::reference
    std::cout << "After setting bit 0, the bitset holds " << b1 << '\n';
}

type_traits
https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/header/type_traits

Composite type categoriesPrimary type category
is_arithmeticis_floating_point or is_integral
is_fundamentalis_arithmetic or is_void
is_objectis_arithmetic or is_enum or is_pointer or is_member_pointer
is_referenceis_lvalue_reference or is_rvalue_reference
is_compoundcomplement of is_fundamental
is_member_pointeris_member_object_pointer or is_member_function_pointer
template class Base, class Derived>Checks if Derived is derived from Base.
struct is_base_of 
template <class From, class To>Checks if From can be converted to To.
struct is_convertible 
template <class T, class U>Checks if the types T and U are the same.
struct is_same
#include <type_traits>
using std::cout;

cout << std::is_void<void>::value;             // true
cout << std::is_integral<short>::value;        // true
cout << std::is_floating_point<double>::value; // true
cout << std::is_array<int [] >::value;         // true
cout << std::is_pointer<int*>::value;          // true
cout << std::is_reference<int&>::value;        // true

struct A{
  int a;
  int f(int){ return 2011; }
};
cout << std::is_member_object_pointer<int A::*>::value;          // true
cout << std::is_member_function_pointer<int (A::*)(int)>::value; // true

enum E{
  e= 1,
};
cout << std::is_enum<E>::value;                  // true

union U{
  int u;
};
cout << std::is_union<U>::value;                 // true

cout << std::is_class<std::string>::value;       // true
cout << std::is_function<int * (double)>::value; // true
cout << std::is_lvalue_reference<int&>::value;   // true
cout << std::is_rvalue_reference<int&&>::value;  // true
cout << is_const<int>::value;                     // false
cout << is_const<const int>::value;               // true
cout << is_const<add_const<int>::type>::value;    // true

typedef add_const<int>::type myConstInt;
cout << is_const<myConstInt>::value;              //true

typedef const int myConstInt2;
cout << is_same<myConstInt, myConstInt2>::value;  // true

cout << is_same<int, remove_const<add_const<int>::type>::type>::value;    // true
cout << is_same<const int, add_const<add_const<int>::type>::type>::value; // true

functional
https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/header/functional

...
#include <functional>
...
// for placehoder _1 and _2
using namespace std::placeholders; f

using std::bind;
using std::function
...
double divMe(double a, double b){ return a/b; };
function < double(double, double) > myDiv1= bind(divMe, _1, _2);
function < double(double) > myDiv2= bind(divMe, 2000, _1);

divMe(2000, 10) == myDiv1(2000, 10) == myDiv2(10);
#include <functional>
...
using std::make_pair;
using std::map;

map<const char, std::function<double(double, double)>> tab;
tab.insert(make_pair('+', [](double a, double b){ return a + b; }));
tab.insert(make_pair('-', [](double a, double b){ return a - b; }));
tab.insert(make_pair('*', [](double a, double b){ return a * b; }));
tab.insert(make_pair('/', [](double a, double b){ return a / b; }));

std::cout << tab['+'](3.5, 4.5);  // 8
std::cout << tab['-'](3.5, 4.5);  // -1
std::cout << tab['*'](3.5, 4.5);  // 15.75
std::cout << tab['/'](3.5, 4.5);  // 0.777778
Function typeReturn typeType of the arguments
double(double, double)doubledouble
int()int 
double(int, double)doubleint, double
void()  

std::variant

std::variant is a type-safe union. An instance of std::variant has a value from one of its types. The type must not be a reference, array or void. 

#include <variant>

...

std::variant<int, float> v, w;
v = 12;                             // v contains int
int i = std::get<int>(v);
w = std::get<int>(v);
w = std::get<0>(v);                 // same effect as the previous line
w = v;                              // same effect as the previous line
 
//  std::get<double>(v);            // error: no double in [int, float]
//  std::get<3>(v);                 // error: valid index values are 0 and 1
 
try{
  std::get<float>(w);               // w contains int, not float: will throw
}
catch (std::bad_variant_access&) {}
 
std::variant<std::string> v("abc"); // converting constructor must be unambiguous
v = "def";                          // converting assignment must be unambiguous

optional
can have value or empty

#include <optional>

std::optional<int> getFirst(const std::vector<int>& vec){
  if (!vec.empty()) return std::optional<int>(vec[0]);
  else return std::optional<int>();
}

...
    
std::vector<int> myVec{1, 2, 3};
std::vector<int> myEmptyVec;
    
auto myInt= getFirst(myVec);
    
if (myInt){
  std::cout << *myInt << std::endl;                       // 1
  std::cout << myInt.value() << std::endl;                // 1
  std::cout << myInt.value_or(2017) << std::endl;         // 1
}
    
auto myEmptyInt= getFirst(myEmptyVec);
    
if (!myEmptyInt){
  std::cout << myEmptyInt.value_or(2017) << std::endl;   // 2017
}

std::any

std::any is a type-safe container for single values of any type which is copy-constructible. 

#include <algorithm>
#include <any>
#include <iostream>
#include <string>
#include <vector>
 
class Star
{
    std::string name;
    int id;
 
public:
    Star(std::string name, int id) : name { name }, id { id }
    {
        std::cout << "Star::Star(string, int)\n";
    }
 
    void print() const
    {
        std::cout << "Star{ \"" << name << "\" : " << id << " };\n";
    }
};
 
auto main() -> int
{
    std::any celestial;
    // (1) emplace( Args&&... args );
    celestial.emplace<Star>("Procyon", 2943);
    const auto* star = std::any_cast<Star>(&celestial);
    star->print();
 
    std::any av;
    // (2) emplace( std::initializer_list<U> il, Args&&... args );
    av.emplace<std::vector<char>>({ 'C', '+', '+', '1', '7' } /* no args */ );
    std::cout << av.type().name() << '\n';
    const auto* va = std::any_cast<std::vector<char>>(&av);
    std::for_each(va->cbegin(), va->cend(), [](char const& c) { std::cout << c; });
    std::cout << '\n';
}
#include <any>

struct MyClass{};

...

std::vector<std::any> anyVec{true, 2017, std::string("test"), 3.14,  MyClass()};
std::cout << std::any_cast<bool>(anyVec[0]);                          // true
int myInt= std::any_cast<int>(anyVec[1]);                                        
std::cout << myInt << std::endl;                                      // 2017
    
std::cout << anyVec[0].type().name();                                 // b 
std::cout << anyVec[1].type().name();                                 // i
any a=any(12);
a.emplace<B>(B());
cout<<a.type().name();//1B

Conversion in c++

by malabdalic++

static_cast
Converts between types using a combination of implicit and user-defined conversions

#include <vector>
#include <iostream>
 
struct B {
    int m = 0;
    void hello() const {
        std::cout << "Hello world, this is B!\n";
    }
};
struct D : B {
    void hello() const {
        std::cout << "Hello world, this is D!\n";
    }
};
 
enum class E { ONE = 1, TWO, THREE };
enum EU { ONE = 1, TWO, THREE };
 
int main()
{
    // 1: initializing conversion
    int n = static_cast<int>(3.14); 
    std::cout << "n = " << n << '\n';
    std::vector<int> v = static_cast<std::vector<int>>(10);
    std::cout << "v.size() = " << v.size() << '\n';
 
    // 2: static downcast
    D d;
    B& br = d; // upcast via implicit conversion
    br.hello();
    D& another_d = static_cast<D&>(br); // downcast
    another_d.hello();
 
    // 3: lvalue to xvalue
    std::vector<int> v2 = static_cast<std::vector<int>&&>(v);
    std::cout << "after move, v.size() = " << v.size() << '\n';
 
    // 4: discarded-value expression
    static_cast<void>(v2.size());
 
    // 5. inverse of implicit conversion
    void* nv = &n;
    int* ni = static_cast<int*>(nv);
    std::cout << "*ni = " << *ni << '\n';
 
    // 6. array-to-pointer followed by upcast
    D a[10];
    B* dp = static_cast<B*>(a);
 
    // 7. scoped enum to int or float
    E e = E::ONE;
    int one = static_cast<int>(e);
    std::cout << one << '\n';
 
    // 8. int to enum, enum to another enum
    E e2 = static_cast<E>(one);
    EU eu = static_cast<EU>(e2);
 
    // 9. pointer to member upcast
    int D::*pm = &D::m;
    std::cout << br.*static_cast<int B::*>(pm) << '\n';
 
    // 10. void* to any type
    void* voidp = &e;
    std::vector<int>* p = static_cast<std::vector<int>*>(voidp);
}

dynamic_cast
Safely converts pointers and references to classes up, down, and sideways along the inheritance hierarchy

struct V {
    virtual void f() {};  // must be polymorphic to use runtime-checked dynamic_cast
};
struct A : virtual V {};
struct B : virtual V {
  B(V* v, A* a) {
    // casts during construction (see the call in the constructor of D below)
    dynamic_cast<B*>(v); // well-defined: v of type V*, V base of B, results in B*
    dynamic_cast<B*>(a); // undefined behavior: a has type A*, A not a base of B
  }
};
struct D : A, B {
    D() : B(static_cast<A*>(this), this) { }
};
 
struct Base {
    virtual ~Base() {}
};
 
struct Derived: Base {
    virtual void name() {}
};
 
int main()
{
    D d; // the most derived object
    A& a = d; // upcast, dynamic_cast may be used, but unnecessary
    D& new_d = dynamic_cast<D&>(a); // downcast
    B& new_b = dynamic_cast<B&>(a); // sidecast
 
 
    Base* b1 = new Base;
    if(Derived* d = dynamic_cast<Derived*>(b1))
    {
        std::cout << "downcast from b1 to d successful\n";
        d->name(); // safe to call
    }
 
    Base* b2 = new Derived;
    if(Derived* d = dynamic_cast<Derived*>(b2))
    {
        std::cout << "downcast from b2 to d successful\n";
        d->name(); // safe to call
    }
 
    delete b1;
    delete b2;
}

const_cast
Converts between types with different cv-qualification.

struct type {
    int i;
 
    type(): i(3) {}
 
    void f(int v) const {
        // this->i = v;                 // compile error: this is a pointer to const
        const_cast<type*>(this)->i = v; // OK as long as the type object isn't const
    }
};
 
int main() 
{
    int i = 3;                 // i is not declared const
    const int& rci = i; 
    const_cast<int&>(rci) = 4; // OK: modifies i
    std::cout << "i = " << i << '\n';
 
    type t; // if this was const type t, then t.f(4) would be undefined behavior
    t.f(4);
    std::cout << "type::i = " << t.i << '\n';
 
    const int j = 3; // j is declared const
    int* pj = const_cast<int*>(&j);
    // *pj = 4;      // undefined behavior
 
    void (type::* pmf)(int) const = &type::f; // pointer to member function
    // const_cast<void(type::*)(int)>(pmf);   // compile error: const_cast does
                                              // not work on function pointers
}

user-defined conversion
Enables implicit conversion or explicit conversion from a class type to another type.

struct X {
    //implicit conversion
    operator int() const { return 7; }
 
    // explicit conversion
    explicit operator int*() const { return nullptr; }
 
//   Error: array operator not allowed in conversion-type-id
//   operator int(*)[3]() const { return nullptr; }
    using arr_t = int[3];
    operator arr_t*() const { return nullptr; } // OK if done through typedef
//  operator arr_t () const; // Error: conversion to array not allowed in any case
};
class A{
public:
   explicit A(int i){
            
   }
};
 
int main()
{
    X x;
 
    int n = static_cast<int>(x);   // OK: sets n to 7
    int m = x;                     // OK: sets m to 7
 
    int* p = static_cast<int*>(x);  // OK: sets p to null
//  int* q = x; // Error: no implicit conversion
 
    int (*pa)[3] = x;  // OK
    A a=(A)12;
}

Template in c++

by malabdalic++

Function templates

template <class myType>
myType GetMax (myType a, myType b) {
 return (a>b?a:b);
}
int x,y;
GetMax <int> (x,y);
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

template <class T>
T GetMax (T a, T b) {
  T result;
  result = (a>b)? a : b;
  return (result);
}

int main () {
  int i=5, j=6, k;
  long l=10, m=5, n;
  k=GetMax<int>(i,j);
  n=GetMax<long>(l,m);
  cout << k << endl;
  cout << n << endl;
  return 0;
}

Class templates

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

template <class T>
class mypair {
    T a, b;
  public:
    mypair (T first, T second)
      {a=first; b=second;}
    T getmax ();
};

template <class T>
T mypair<T>::getmax ()
{
  T retval;
  retval = a>b? a : b;
  return retval;
}

int main () {
  mypair <int> myobject (100, 75);
  cout << myobject.getmax();
  return 0;
}
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// class template:
template <class T>
class mycontainer {
    T element;
  public:
    mycontainer (T arg) {element=arg;}
    T increase () {return ++element;}
};

// class template specialization:
template <>
class mycontainer <char> {
    char element;
  public:
    mycontainer (char arg) {element=arg;}
    char uppercase ()
    {
      if ((element>='a')&&(element<='z'))
      element+='A'-'a';
      return element;
    }
};

int main () {
  mycontainer<int> myint (7);
  mycontainer<char> mychar ('j');
  cout << myint.increase() << endl;
  cout << mychar.uppercase() << endl;
  return 0;
}
template <class T>
struct A{
    template<class AA>
    void fun();
};

template <class T>
template<class AA>
void A<T>::fun(){

}
template <>
template<>
void A<QString>::fun<QString>(){

}

template<>
struct A<int>{
    void fun();
};
void A<int>::fun(){

}

Non-type parameters for templates

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

template <class T, int N>
class mysequence {
    T memblock [N];
  public:
    void setmember (int x, T value);
    T getmember (int x);
};

template <class T, int N>
void mysequence<T,N>::setmember (int x, T value) {
  memblock[x]=value;
}

template <class T, int N>
T mysequence<T,N>::getmember (int x) {
  return memblock[x];
}

int main () {
  mysequence <int,5> myints;
  mysequence <double,5> myfloats;
  myints.setmember (0,100);
  myfloats.setmember (3,3.1416);
  cout << myints.getmember(0) << '\n';
  cout << myfloats.getmember(3) << '\n';
  return 0;
}

Parameter pack or Variadics template

template<class ... Types> void f(Types ... args);
f();       // OK: args contains no arguments
f(1);      // OK: args contains one argument: int
f(2, 1.0); // OK: args contains two arguments: int and double
template<typename... Ts, typename U> struct Invalid; // Error: Ts.. not at the end
 
template<typename ...Ts, typename U, typename=void>
void valid(U, Ts...);     // OK: can deduce U
// void valid(Ts..., U);  // Can't be used: Ts... is a non-deduced context in this position
 
valid(1.0, 1, 2, 3);      // OK: deduces U as double, Ts as {int,int,int}

Pack expansion

template<class ...Us> void f(Us... pargs) {}
template<class ...Ts> void g(Ts... args) {
    f(&args...); // “&args...” is a pack expansion
                 // “&args” is its pattern
}
g(1, 0.2, "a"); // Ts... args expand to int E1, double E2, const char* E3
                // &args... expands to &E1, &E2, &E3
                // Us... pargs expand to int* E1, double* E2, const char** E3
// The base case: we just have a single number.
template <typename T>
double sum(T t) {
    cout<<"call base sum\n";// call once at the last of recursion
    return t;
}

// The recursive case: we take a number, alongside
// some other numbers, and produce their sum.
template <typename T, typename... Rest>
double sum(T t, Rest... rest) {
    cout<<"call main sum\n";//call first 3 times
    return t + sum(rest...);
}

int main(int argc,char* argv[]){
    cout<<sum(1,2,3,4);//10
    return 0;
}

Template Specialize style


template <class T,class ...TT>
class AA;
template <class T,class ...TT>
class AA<T(TT...)>{
};

Class in c++ part2

by malabdalic++

abstract class

struct Base { virtual int g(); virtual ~Base() {} };
struct A : Base {
    // OK: declares three member virtual functions, two of them pure
    virtual int f() = 0, g() override = 0, h();
    // OK: destructor can be pure too
    ~A() = 0;
    // Error: pure-specifier on a function definition
    virtual int b()=0 {}
};
struct Abstract {
    virtual void f() = 0; // pure virtual
    virtual void g() {}  // non-pure virtual
    ~Abstract() {
        g(); // OK: calls Abstract::g()
        // f(); // undefined behavior
        Abstract::f(); // OK: non-virtual call
    }
};
 
// definition of the pure virtual function
void Abstract::f() { std::cout << "A::f()\n"; }
 
struct Concrete : Abstract {
    void f() override {
        Abstract::f(); // OK: calls pure virtual function
    }
    void g() override {}
    ~Concrete() {
        g(); // OK: calls Concrete::g()
        f(); // OK: calls Concrete::f()
    }
};

override specifier

struct A
{
    virtual void foo();
    void bar();
};
 
struct B : A
{
    void foo() const override; // Error: B::foo does not override A::foo
                               // (signature mismatch)
    void foo() override; // OK: B::foo overrides A::foo
    void bar() override; // Error: A::bar is not virtual
};

final specifier

struct Base
{
    virtual void foo();
};
 
struct A : Base
{
    void foo() final; // Base::foo is overridden and A::foo is the final override
    void bar() final; // Error: bar cannot be final as it is non-virtual
};
 
struct B final : A // struct B is final
{
    void foo() override; // Error: foo cannot be overridden as it is final in A
};
 
struct C : B // Error: B is final
{
};

friend declaration

class Y {
    int data; // private member
    // the non-member function operator<< will have access to Y's private members
    friend std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream& out, const Y& o);
    friend char* X::foo(int); // members of other classes can be friends too
    friend X::X(char), X::~X(); // constructors and destructors can be friends
};
// friend declaration does not declare a member function
// this operator<< still needs to be defined, as a non-member
std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream& out, const Y& y)
{
    return out << y.data; // can access private member Y::data
}
class F {};
int f();
int main()
{
    extern int g();
    class Local { // Local class in the main() function
        friend int f(); // Error, no such function declared in main()
        friend int g(); // OK, there is a declaration for g in main()
        friend class F; // friends a local F (defined later)
        friend class ::F; // friends the global F
    };
    class F {}; // local F
}

Bit field

#include <iostream>
struct S {
    // will usually occupy 2 bytes:
    // 3 bits: value of b1
    // 2 bits: unused
    // 6 bits: value of b2
    // 2 bits: value of b3
    // 3 bits: unused
    unsigned char b1 : 3, : 2, b2 : 6, b3 : 2;
};
int main()
{
    std::cout << sizeof(S) << '\n'; // usually prints 2
}
#include <iostream>
struct S {
    // will usually occupy 2 bytes:
    // 3 bits: value of b1
    // 5 bits: unused
    // 6 bits: value of b2
    // 2 bits: value of b3
    unsigned char b1 : 3;
    unsigned char :0; // start a new byte
    unsigned char b2 : 6;
    unsigned char b3 : 2;
};
int main()
{
    std::cout << sizeof(S) << '\n'; // usually prints 2
}

If the specified size of the bit field is greater than the size of its type, the value is limited by the type: a std::uint8_t b : 1000; would still hold values between 0 and 255. the extra bits become unused padding.

This Pointer

class T
{
    int x;
 
    void foo()
    {
        x = 6;       // same as this->x = 6;
        this->x = 5; // explicit use of this->
    }
 
    void foo() const
    {
//        x = 7; // Error: *this is constant
    }
 
    void foo(int x) // parameter x shadows the member with the same name
    {
        this->x = x; // unqualified x refers to the parameter
                     // 'this->' required for disambiguation
    }
 
    int y;
    T(int x) : x(x), // uses parameter x to initialize member x
               y(this->x) // uses member x to initialize member y
    {}
 
    T& operator= ( const T& b )
    {
        x = b.x;
        return *this; // many overloaded operators return *this
    }
};
 
class Outer {
    int a[sizeof(*this)]; // error: not inside a member function
    unsigned int sz = sizeof(*this); // OK: in default member initializer
    void f() {
        int b[sizeof(*this)]; // OK
        struct Inner {
            int c[sizeof(*this)]; // error: not inside a member function of Inner
        };
    }
}

Constructors and member initializer lists

#include <fstream>
#include <string>
#include <mutex>
 
struct Base {
    int n;
};   
 
struct Class : public Base
{
    unsigned char x;
    unsigned char y;
    std::mutex m;
    std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lg;
    std::fstream f;
    std::string s;
 
    Class ( int x )
      : Base { 123 }, // initialize base class
        x ( x ),      // x (member) is initialized with x (parameter)
        y { 0 },      // y initialized to 0
        f{"test.cc", std::ios::app}, // this takes place after m and lg are initialized
        s(__func__),   //__func__ is available because init-list is a part of constructor
        lg ( m ),      // lg uses m, which is already initialized
        m{}            // m is initialized before lg even though it appears last here
    {}                // empty compound statement
 
    Class ( double a )
      : y ( a+1 ),
        x ( y ), // x will be initialized before y, its value here is indeterminate
        lg ( m )
    {} // base class initializer does not appear in the list, it is
       // default-initialized (not the same as if Base() were used, which is value-init)
 
    Class()
    try // function-try block begins before the function body, which includes init list
      : Class( 0.0 ) //delegate constructor
    {
        // ...
    }
    catch (...)
    {
        // exception occurred on initialization
    }
};
 
int main() {
    Class c;
    Class c1(1);
    Class c2(0.1);
}

Default constructors

struct A
{
    int x;
    A(int x = 1): x(x) {} // user-defined default constructor
};
 
struct B: A
{
    // B::B() is implicitly-defined, calls A::A()
};
 
struct C
{
    A a;
    // C::C() is implicitly-defined, calls A::A()
};
 
struct D: A
{
    D(int y): A(y) {}
    // D::D() is not declared because another constructor exists
};
 
struct E: A
{
    E(int y): A(y) {}
    E() = default; // explicitly defaulted, calls A::A()
};
 
struct F
{
    int& ref; // reference member
    const int c; // const member
    // F::F() is implicitly defined as deleted
};
 
int main()
{
    A a;
    B b;
    C c;
//  D d; // compile error
    E e;
//  F f; // compile error
}

Destructor

#include <iostream>
 
struct A
{
    int i;
 
    A ( int i ) : i ( i ) 
    {
        std::cout << "ctor a" << i << '\n';
    }
 
    ~A()
    {
        std::cout << "dtor a" << i << '\n';
    }
};
 
A a0(0);
 
int main()
{
    A a1(1);
    A* p;
 
    { // nested scope
        A a2(2);
        p = new A(3);
    } // a2 out of scope
 
    delete p; // calls the destructor of a3
}

Copy constructors

struct A
{
    int n;
    A(int n = 1) : n(n) { }
    A(const A& a) : n(a.n) { } // user-defined copy ctor
};
 
struct B : A
{
    // implicit default ctor B::B()
    // implicit copy ctor B::B(const B&)
};
 
struct C : B
{
     C() : B() { }
 private:
     C(const C&); // non-copyable, C++98 style
};
 
int main()
{
    A a1(7);
    A a2(a1); // calls the copy ctor
    B b;
    B b2 = b;
    A a3 = b; // conversion to A& and copy ctor
    volatile A va(10);
    // A a4 = va; // compile error
 
    C c;
    // C c2 = c; // compile error
}

Copy assignment operator

#include <iostream>
#include <memory>
#include <string>
#include <algorithm>
 
struct A
{
    int n;
    std::string s1;
    // user-defined copy assignment, copy-and-swap form
    A& operator=(A other)
    {
        std::cout << "copy assignment of A\n";
        std::swap(n, other.n);
        std::swap(s1, other.s1);
        return *this;
    }
};
 
struct B : A
{
    std::string s2;
    // implicitly-defined copy assignment
};
 
struct C
{
    std::unique_ptr<int[]> data;
    std::size_t size;
    // non-copy-and-swap assignment
    C& operator=(const C& other)
    {
        // check for self-assignment
        if(&other == this)
            return *this;
        // reuse storage when possible
        if(size != other.size)
        {
            data.reset(new int[other.size]);
            size = other.size;
        }
        std::copy(&other.data[0], &other.data[0] + size, &data[0]);
        return *this;
    }
    // note: copy-and-swap would always cause a reallocation
};
 
int main()
{
    A a1, a2;
    std::cout << "a1 = a2 calls ";
    a1 = a2; // user-defined copy assignment
 
    B b1, b2;
    b2.s1 = "foo";
    b2.s2 = "bar";
    std::cout << "b1 = b2 calls ";
    b1 = b2; // implicitly-defined copy assignment
    std::cout << "b1.s1 = " << b1.s1 << " b1.s2 = " << b1.s2 << '\n';
}

Move constructors

#include <string>
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
#include <utility>
 
struct A
{
    std::string s;
    int k;
    A() : s("test"), k(-1) { }
    A(const A& o) : s(o.s), k(o.k) { std::cout << "move failed!\n"; }
    A(A&& o) noexcept :
           s(std::move(o.s)),       // explicit move of a member of class type
           k(std::exchange(o.k, 0)) // explicit move of a member of non-class type
    { }
};
 
A f(A a)
{
    return a;
}
 
struct B : A
{
    std::string s2;
    int n;
    // implicit move constructor B::(B&&)
    // calls A's move constructor
    // calls s2's move constructor
    // and makes a bitwise copy of n
};
 
struct C : B
{
    ~C() { } // destructor prevents implicit move constructor C::(C&&)
};
 
struct D : B
{
    D() { }
    ~D() { }          // destructor would prevent implicit move constructor D::(D&&)
    D(D&&) = default; // forces a move constructor anyway
};
 
int main()
{
    std::cout << "Trying to move A\n";
    A a1 = f(A()); // return by value move-constructs the target from the function parameter
    std::cout << "Before move, a1.s = " << std::quoted(a1.s) << " a1.k = " << a1.k << '\n';
    A a2 = std::move(a1); // move-constructs from xvalue
    std::cout << "After move, a1.s = " << std::quoted(a1.s) << " a1.k = " << a1.k << '\n';
 
    std::cout << "Trying to move B\n";
    B b1;
    std::cout << "Before move, b1.s = " << std::quoted(b1.s) << "\n";
    B b2 = std::move(b1); // calls implicit move constructor
    std::cout << "After move, b1.s = " << std::quoted(b1.s) << "\n";
 
    std::cout << "Trying to move C\n";
    C c1;
    C c2 = std::move(c1); // calls copy constructor
 
    std::cout << "Trying to move D\n";
    D d1;
    D d2 = std::move(d1);
}

Move assignment operator

#include <string>
#include <iostream>
#include <utility>
 
struct A
{
    std::string s;
    A() : s("test") { }
    A(const A& o) : s(o.s) { std::cout << "move failed!\n"; }
    A(A&& o) : s(std::move(o.s)) { }
    A& operator=(const A& other)
    {
         s = other.s;
         std::cout << "copy assigned\n";
         return *this;
    }
    A& operator=(A&& other)
    {
         s = std::move(other.s);
         std::cout << "move assigned\n";
         return *this;
    }
};
 
A f(A a) { return a; }
 
struct B : A
{
     std::string s2; 
     int n;
     // implicit move assignment operator B& B::operator=(B&&)
     // calls A's move assignment operator
     // calls s2's move assignment operator
     // and makes a bitwise copy of n
};
 
struct C : B
{
    ~C() { } // destructor prevents implicit move assignment
};
 
struct D : B
{
    D() { }
    ~D() { } // destructor would prevent implicit move assignment
    D& operator=(D&&) = default; // force a move assignment anyway 
};
 
int main()
{
    A a1, a2;
    std::cout << "Trying to move-assign A from rvalue temporary\n";
    a1 = f(A()); // move-assignment from rvalue temporary
    std::cout << "Trying to move-assign A from xvalue\n";
    a2 = std::move(a1); // move-assignment from xvalue
 
    std::cout << "Trying to move-assign B\n";
    B b1, b2;
    std::cout << "Before move, b1.s = \"" << b1.s << "\"\n";
    b2 = std::move(b1); // calls implicit move assignment
    std::cout << "After move, b1.s = \"" << b1.s << "\"\n";
 
    std::cout << "Trying to move-assign C\n";
    C c1, c2;
    c2 = std::move(c1); // calls the copy assignment operator
 
    std::cout << "Trying to move-assign D\n";
    D d1, d2;
    d2 = std::move(d1);
}

Converting constructor

struct A
{
    A() { }         // converting constructor (since C++11)  
    A(int) { }      // converting constructor
    A(int, int) { } // converting constructor (since C++11)
};
 
struct B
{
    explicit B() { }
    explicit B(int) { }
    explicit B(int, int) { }
};
 
int main()
{
    A a1 = 1;      // OK: copy-initialization selects A::A(int)
    A a2(2);       // OK: direct-initialization selects A::A(int)
    A a3{4, 5};    // OK: direct-list-initialization selects A::A(int, int)
    A a4 = {4, 5}; // OK: copy-list-initialization selects A::A(int, int)
    A a5 = (A)1;   // OK: explicit cast performs static_cast, direct-initialization
 
//  B b1 = 1;      // error: copy-initialization does not consider B::B(int)
    B b2(2);       // OK: direct-initialization selects B::B(int)
    B b3{4, 5};    // OK: direct-list-initialization selects B::B(int, int)
//  B b4 = {4, 5}; // error: copy-list-initialization selected an explicit constructor
                   //        B::B(int, int)
    B b5 = (B)1;   // OK: explicit cast performs static_cast, direct-initialization
    B b6;          // OK, default-initialization
    B b7{};        // OK, direct-list-initialization
//  B b8 = {};     // error: copy-list-initialization selected an explicit constructor
                   //        B::B()
}

lvalue and rvalue functions

class A{
public:
    void fun()&{
        cout<<"can called only by lvalue";
    }
    void fun()&&{
        cout<<"can called only by rvalue";
    }
};